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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Mesa Verde National Park Author: Anonymous Release Date: April 29, 2014 [EBook #45535] Language: English *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK *** Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Mesa Verde [COLORADO] National Park United States Department of the Interior Harold L. Ickes, Secretary NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Arno B. Cammerer, Director UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1936 Rules and Regulations [BRIEFED] A complete copy of the rules and regulations for governing the park may be seen at the office of the superintendent. Automobiles Secure automobile permit, fee $1 per car. Speed limit 35 miles per hour on entrance highway, 20 miles per hour in headquarters area and on ruin roads. Drive carefully; free wheeling is prohibited within the park. Fires Confine fires to designated places. Extinguish completely before leaving camp, even for temporary absences. Do not guess your fire is out—KNOW IT. Firewood Use only the wood that is stacked and marked “firewood” near your campsite. By all means do not use your ax on any standing tree or strip bark from the junipers. Grounds Burn all combustible rubbish before leaving your camp. Do not throw papers, cans, or other refuse on the ground or over the canyon rim. Use the incinerators which are placed for this purpose. Hiking Do not venture away from the headquarters area unless accompanied by a guide or after first having secured permission from a duly authorized park officer. Hunting Hunting is prohibited within the park. This area is a sanctuary for all wildlife. Noise Be quiet in camp after others have gone to bed. Many people come here for rest. Park Rangers The rangers are here to help and advise you as well as to enforce regulations. When in doubt, ask a ranger. Ruins and Structures Do not mark, disturb, or injure in any way the ruins or any of the buildings, signs, or other properties within the park. Trees, Flowers, and Animals Do not carve initials upon or pull the bark from any logs or trees. Flowers may not be picked unless written permission is obtained from the superintendent or park naturalist. Do not harm or frighten any of the wild animals or birds within the park. We wish to protect them for your enjoyment. Visitors Register and secure permit at the park entrance. Between travel seasons, registration and permit are arranged for at park headquarters. Events OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE 1st century [1] B. C. or A. D. The earliest occupation of Cliff Palace cave was probably before, or immediately following, the beginning of the Christian era. These earliest occupants, known to scientists as Basket Makers, were the first agricultural Indians of the Southwest. 4th to 7th [1] centuries A. D. By the beginning of the fourth century A. D., the early agriculturists were developing the art of pottery making. Later, their semisubterranean homes were spread widely over the Mesa Verde. 7th to 10th [1] centuries A. D. During the three or four centuries preceding 1000 A. D., the Pueblo Culture on Mesa Verde was developing from modest beginnings toward its classical stage, which culminated in the building of the great cliff dwelling. 1066 Earliest date established for large Mesa Verde cliff dwellings. (Beam section from Mug House.) 1073- 1273 Construction of Cliff Palace. 1276 Beginning of 23-year drought, an important factor in forcing the Cliff dwellers from the Mesa Verde. 1776 Expedition of Padre Silvestre Velez de Escalante to southwestern Colorado. Party camped at the base of the Mesa Verde. 1859 Ascent of the north escarpment of Mesa Verde by Capt. J. N. Macomb, of the United States Army, and members of his party of geologists. 1874 Discovery of the ruins in the Mancos Canyon by W. H. Jackson, United States Geological Survey. Party attacked by Ute Indians. 1888 Discovery of Cliff Palace and other major ruins by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason. 1891 First organized archeological expedition to Mesa Verde, under direction of Baron G. Nordenskiöld. 1906 Mesa Verde National Park created June 29. 1907 Excavation of Spruce Tree House by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, of Smithsonian Institution. 1909 Excavation of Cliff Palace. 1911 Excavation and repair of Balcony House by Jesse L. Nusbaum. 1913 First entrance road completed. First automobile in Spruce Tree Camp. Extension of park boundaries to include notable ruins and archeological remains. 1914 Construction of first wagon road from Spruce Tree Camp to principal cliff dwellings. 1915 Sun Temple excavated by Dr. Fewkes. 1916 Far View House excavated by Dr. Fewkes. 1917 First Government-constructed trails to Spring House and Soda Canyon. 1918 First camp accommodations established at Spruce Tree Camp. 1919 Square Tower House excavated. 1921 Establishment of superintendent’s office and home at Spruce Tree Camp. 1925 First unit of park museum constructed from donated funds. 1926 Excavation of Step House Ruin and discovery of very early occupation of cave by Basket Maker III culture predating the cliff dwellers by several hundred years. 1928 Exclusive jurisdiction of park tendered to the United States and accepted by act of Congress April 25. 1934 Completion of deep water well (4,192 feet). Contents Page The Ruins 3 Spruce Tree House 5 Cliff Palace 8 Balcony House 11 Square Tower House 12 Oak Tree House 15 Sun Set House 15 Sun Temple 15 New Fire-House Group 19 Cedar Tree Tower 21 Far View House, a Mesa Verde Pueblo 21 Earth Lodge A 25 Unexcavated Ruins 25 Dates for Mesa Verde Ruins Established by Tree-Ring Chronology 26 Discoveries of Recent Years 27 Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mesa Verde 28 Fauna and Flora 32 How to Reach the Park 33 By Automobile 33 By Railroad 34 Motor Transportation 35 Administration 35 Educational Service 36 Guided Trips to the Ruins 36 Camp-fire Talks 37 Park Museum 37 Reference Library 38 Free Public Camp Grounds 38 Horseback and Hiking Trips 38 Hospital and Medical Service 39 Accommodations and Expenses 39 References 40 What to Do THINGS TO SEE ON WAY FROM PARK ENTRANCE TO HEADQUARTERS 3.5 miles—Top of first grade—Mancos Valley and La Plata Mountains. 5.0 miles—Knife Edge Road—Montezuma Valley and Sleeping Ute Mountain. 10.5 miles—Scenic road to Park Point, highest elevation within Mesa Verde National Park, 8,575 feet above sea level; 2,200 feet above the Montezuma Valley. View into four States—Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. 16.0 miles—Pueblo III ruins on top of mesa—Far View House Ruin, Pipe Shrine House Ruin, Far View Tower Ruin. 18.5 miles—Cedar Tree Tower Ruin—road branches off to left. 20.0 miles—Park headquarters. Park ranger will meet your car and give information. THINGS TO DO WHILE ON THE MESA VERDE MOTOR CARAV ANS TO RUINS—DAILY. USE YOUR OWN CAR. NO CHARGE FOR GUIDE SERVICE 8 a. m.—Earth Lodge A, Square Tower House, Little Long House, Sun Point, Fire Temple, Sun Temple. Return 11:15 a. m. Distance 6½ miles. 10 a. m.—A shortened trip of morning route to accommodate late comers. Return 11:15 a. m. 1:30 p. m.—Cliff Palace, Rim Drive, Balcony House. Return 4:15 p. m. Distance 7 miles. 3 p. m.—A shortened trip of the 1:30 route to accommodate late comers. Does not go through Cliff Palace but views this ruin from the top of the mesa. Return 4:30 p. m. MOTOR CARAV AN TO PARK POINT—DAILY. USE YOUR OWN CAR 6:30 or 7 p. m.—Time of leaving will vary to arrive at Park Point to view colorful sunset. Ranger in charge will discuss the flora, geology, and scenic points. Distance 24 miles. CAMPFIRE LECTURE—DAILY 8 p. m.—In circle at park headquarters. Archeological story of the Southwest. 9 p. m.—Ceremonial dance by Navajo Indians. THINGS TO DO—NOT ON REGULAR SCHEDULE Museum—Open from 8 a. m. to 5:30 p. m. A splendid collection of material from the cliff ruins and other sections of the Southwest. Community building—A display of cut wild flowers. Porch with comfortable chairs. View of Spruce Tree Ruin. Open at all times. Spruce Tree Ruin—Below park headquarters. May be visited at your leisure without guide. Ranger on duty in this ruin for information. Nature trail—The path to Spruce Tree Ruin has been prepared with a series of signs explaining the flora and rock formations. Horseback trips—Splendid trails lead in all directions. Large, unexcavated ruins, magnificent canyons and mesas off the beaten path unfold the charm of this primitive region. Rates are very reasonable. Hikes—To any section of the park can be arranged for with the park naturalist. If sufficient numbers enroll for such hikes, a naturalist guide will be provided. ACCOMMODATIONS At park headquarters, 20 miles from entrance. Spruce Tree Lodge—Cabins, tents, and meals. General store and curios. Free Government camp ground. Firewood and water furnished. MESA VERDE National Park · SEASON FROM MAY 15 TO OCTOBER 15 · The mesa verde, or green mesa, so-called because its juniper and piñon trees give it a verdant tone, is 15 miles long by 8 miles wide. Rising abruptly from the valley on the north side, its top slopes gradually southward to the high cliffs bordering the valley of the Mancos River on the south. Into this valley open a number of large high-walled canyons through which occasionally, in times of heavy rain, raging torrents of water flow into the Mancos. In the shelter of the caves that have been eroded in the sides of these canyons are some of the best-preserved cliff dwellings in America, built many centuries ago by a tribe of peace-loving Indians who prized the security offered by the almost inaccessible caves. In order to preserve these cliff dwellings Mesa Verde National Park was created, but they are not the only attractions in the area. In the winter the park is closed to travel by deep snow, but in the early spring the blanket of snow is replaced by a mantle of flowers that change with the seasons, and to the story of the prehistoric inhabitants is added an absorbing story of nature that is peculiar to this mesa and canyon country. “The Mesa Verde region”, writes Arthur Chapman, “has many attractions besides its ruins. It is a land of weird beauty. The canyons which seam the mesa, all of which lead toward the distant Mancos River, are, in many cases, replicas of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. While the summer days are warm, the nights are cool, and the visitor should bring plenty of wraps besides the clothing and shoes necessary for the work of climbing around among the trails. It is a country for active footwork, just as it was in the days of the cliff dwellers themselves. But when one has spent a few days among the cedars and piñon pines of the Mesa Verde, well named Green Table by the Spaniards of early days, he becomes an enthusiast and will be found among those who return again and again to this most unique of national parks to study its mysteries and its beauties from all angles.” The northern edge of the mesa terminates in a precipitous bluff, averaging 2,000 feet above the Montezuma Valley. The general slope of the surface is to the south, and as the main road to the ruins meanders back and forth in heading each smaller canyon, many times skirting the very brink of the great northern fault line, tremendous expanses of diversified terrain are brought into view, first in Colorado and Utah, then in Arizona and New Mexico. A new scenic road approximately 1 mile in length branches from the main highway at a point 8 miles beyond the entrance checking station and ascends to the crest of Park Point, the highest part of the Mesa Verde National Park, which attains an elevation of 8,575 feet above sea level. From this majestic prominence the great Montezuma Valley, dotted with artificial lakes and fertile fields, appears as from an airplane, while to the north are seen the Rico Mountains and the Lone Cone of Colorado, and to the east, the La Plata Mountains. To the west the La Sals, the Blues, and Bears Ears, of Utah, dominate the horizon. Some of these landmarks are more than 115 miles distant. Southward numerous deep canyons, in which the more important cliff dwellings are found, subdivide the Mesa Verde into many long, narrow, tonguelike mesas. The dark purplish canyon of the Mancos River is visible in the middle foreground, and beyond, above the jagged outline of the mesa to the south, the Navajo Reservation, surrounded by the deep-blue Carrizos of Arizona and the Lukachukai and Tunichas of New Mexico. In the midst of this great mountain-enclosed, sandy plain, which, seen from the mesa, resembles a vast inland sea surrounded by dark, forbidding mountains, rises Ship Rock (45 miles distant), a great, jagged shaft of igneous rock, 1,860 feet high, which appears for all the world like a great “windjammer” under full sail. Toward evening the illusion is perfect. The distance from Park Point to Spruce Tree Camp, the park headquarters, is 12 miles. The entire road from the park entrance to headquarters, 20 miles, is gravel surfaced and oil treated, full double width, and cars may pass at any point thereon. Although there are hundreds of cliff dwellings within the Mesa Verde National Park, the more important are located in Rock, Long, Wickiup, Navajo, Spruce, Soda, Moccasin, and tributary canyons. Surface ruins of a different type are widely distributed over the narrow mesas separating the numerous canyons. A vast area surrounding the park contains more or less important ruins of these early inhabitants, most important and easiest of access from the park being the Aztec Ruins and Chaco Canyon National Monuments, New Mexico; the Yucca House National Monument, Colorado; and the Hovenweep National Monument, Colorado-Utah. Road map of Mesa Verde National Park, showing important ruins on Chapin Mesa only. THE RUINS Although the Spaniards were in the Mesa Verde region as early as 1765 and the Americans as early as 1859, it was not until 1872 that the first settlement was made. In that year the Mancos Valley, lying at the foot of the Mesa Verde, was settled, but because of the fact that the mesa itself was a stronghold of the warlike Ute Indians, many years passed before the cliff dwellings were discovered. Spruce Tree House, a community dwelling of 114 rooms. The ruins in the Mancos Canyon were discovered as early as 1874 when W. H. Jackson, who led a Government party, found there many small dwellings broken down by the weather. The next year he was followed by Prof. W. H. Holmes, later chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, who drew attention to the remarkable stone towers also found in this region. Had either of the explorers followed up the side canyons of the Mancos they would have then discovered ruins which, in the words of Baron Gustav Nordenskiöld, the talented Swedish explorer, are “so magnificent that they surpass anything of the kind known in the United States.” The largest cliff ruin, known as Cliff Palace, was discovered by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason while hunting cattle one December day in 1888. Coming to the edge of a small canyon they first caught sight of a village under the overhanging cliff on the opposite side, placed like a picture in its rocky frame. In their enthusiasm they thought it was a palace. With the same enthusiasm the visitors of today involuntarily express their pleasure and surprise as the spectacle breaks on their astonished vision. Later these two men explored this ruin and gave it the name of Cliff Palace, an unfortunate designation, for it is in no respect a palace, but a community house, containing over 200 living rooms, former abodes of families, and 23 ceremonial rooms or kivas. They also discovered other community dwellings, one of which was called Spruce Tree House, from a large spruce tree, since cut down, growing in front of it. This had 8 ceremonial rooms and probably housed 300 inhabitants. The findings of these two ruins did not complete the discoveries of ancient buildings in the Mesa Verde; many other ruins were found by the Wetherills, and others who need not now be mentioned. They mark the oldest and most congested region of the park, but the whole number of archeological sites may reach into the thousands. Only a few of the different types of ruins that have already been excavated and repaired and are now accessible to the visitor are considered herein. This excavation and repair was the work of the late Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, formerly chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, with the exception of Balcony House, which was done by Jesse L. Nusbaum. Hundreds of sites await scientific investigation, being accessible now only on foot or horseback mainly by means of trails. SPRUCE TREE HOUSE Spruce Tree House, located in a large cave just across Spruce Tree Canyon from the museum, has been made readily accessible by a short winding trail. This is the only excavated cliff dwelling in the park that may be visited without going on a conducted tour, and is open to the public at all times. A ranger is always on duty to protect the ruin from vandalism and to give information to the visitors. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The total length of Spruce Tree House is 216 feet, and its greatest width is 89 feet. During the excavation of the ruin in 1907, Dr. Fewkes counted 8 ceremonial rooms, or kivas, and 114 rooms that had been used for living, storage, and other purposes. At least 14 seemed to have been storage and burial rooms so that probably not more than 100 were used as dwellings. If it is considered that a family occupied each room, the population would have been large, but it is doubtful if all of the rooms were occupied at one time. An average of 2 or 3 persons to the room, making a total of not more than 300 for the entire village, would no doubt be a fair estimate. Two hundred feet north of Spruce Tree House the canyon comes to an abrupt box end. A splendid spring flows from the base of the sandstone cliff, and it was to this spring that the cliff-dweller women went for water carrying it back to their homes in their big water jars. At the south end of the cave a trail, consisting of small toeholds cut in the cliff, led to the mesa top above. This trail was used by the men as they went to their mesa-top fields, where they raised corn, beans, and squash, and by the hunters as they went in search of deer and mountain sheep that lived in the forests above. LIVING ROOMS The rooms of Spruce Tree House are divided into two groups by a court or street running from the front to the back of the cave, at a point just south of the center of the village. The majority of the rooms are north of this street, and some of the walls show the finest work in the entire structure. The stones were well shaped and smoothed; the mud mortar was carefully worked into the crevices and compressed with thin stone wedges. Over many of the walls was spread a thin coat of reddish plaster, often decorated with paintings. These rooms, standing as when they were constructed 700 years ago, are mute evidence of the cleverness of the masons who built them. Spruce Tree House has more walls that reach the top of the cave than any other ruin in the park. All through the central part the walls were three stories high and the top of the cave served as the roof of the upper rooms. The first- and second-story rooms, however, had their own ceilings. Heavy rafters, running lengthwise of the rooms, were covered with a crosswise layer of small poles and withes, and these in turn were covered with a 3-inch layer of mud. Very often a small hatchway was left in one corner of the ceiling and a short ladder leaning in the corner of the lower room gave access to the room above. Very few of the houses were equipped with fire pits. Most of the cooking was done in the open courts and the small fire pits can be found along the walls and in the corners of the courts and passageways. CEREMONIAL ROOMS OR KIV AS Spruce Tree House has eight of the circular, subterranean rooms that were set aside for ceremonial purposes. Similar rooms are still in use in the present day Pueblo Indian villages and are known as kivas. Usually the kiva roofs have collapsed, but in Square Tower House two kivas have the original roofs almost intact. Following the plan of these original roofs, three of the kivas in Spruce Tree House have been reroofed and upon descending the ladder into one of these the details of construction may be noted. Kivas in the Mesa Verde are always underground and are nearly always circular. The average diameter is 12 to 13 feet and the depth is such that the roof would clear a man’s head. At a point about 3 feet above the floor is a narrow ledge running entirely around the room. This ledge is known as the banquette and its exact use is unknown. On this ledge were built six stone buttresses or pilasters, and these, rising to within 2 or 3 feet of the top of the kiva, served as roof supports. Short beams were placed from pilaster to pilaster around the room and a second set of beams was laid across the angles made by the first set. This was continued until five or six sets of beams had extended this cribwork almost to the ground level. Horizontal beams were then placed across the top and the whole structure was covered with bark and earth. In the center of the roof a small square hole was left that served as a door and smoke vent. On the south side of the kiva the banquette is wider between two of the pilasters than anywhere else around the room. This deep recess is often referred to as an altar, although its exact use is not known. Just back of the wall of this deep recess is a vertical shaft that leads down to meet a horizontal shaft that opens into the kiva just above the floor. This is the ventilator shaft. The fire, burning in the small pit in the center of the room, sent the smoke up through the hole in the roof, and the fresh air was drawn down through the ventilator shaft. Between the ventilator and the fire pit a small wall, known as the “deflector”, was constructed to keep the fresh air current from blowing on the fire. Two or three feet from the fire pit, and in a straight line with the ventilator shaft, the deep recess, the deflector and the fire pit is a small hole in the floor of the kiva. This hole is usually about 3 inches in diameter and from 4 to 6 inches deep; its walls and bottom often covered with a smooth layer of mud. In the present day kivas this hole is known as the “sipapu”, and is considered to be the symbolic entrance to the underworld. The kiva was a combination ceremonial, club, and workroom for the men. Even in the present day villages the women are rarely ever allowed to enter the kivas because of the fact that the men take almost entire charge of the religious work. It is believed that each clan had its own kiva, and it will be noted that in almost every case the kiva is surrounded by a group of living rooms. The members of the clan no doubt lived in these rooms and the men held their ceremonies in the adjoining kiva. Two of the kivas in Spruce Tree House have side entrances that lead to nearby rooms. These rooms may have been the homes of the priests, or dressing rooms for them. DATE OF OCCUPATION Twenty-one of the roof beams in Spruce Tree House have been dated by tree-ring chronology. These dates show that the houses were constructed during the years between 1230 A. D. and 1274 A. D. In 1276 A. D. a 23-year period of drought began that caused the cliff dwellers to move to regions where there was a more permanent supply of water. In those same regions are the homes of the modern Pueblo Indians and no doubt some of these people are the descendants of the Cliff Dwellers. CLIFF PALACE Cliff Palace lies in an eastern spur of Cliff Canyon under the roof of an enormous cave that arches 50 to 100 feet above it. The floor of the cave is elevated about 200 feet above the bottom of the canyon and is just under the rim of the mesa. The entrance of the cave faces west, toward a great promontory upon which stands Sun Temple. The total length of the cave is over 300 feet and its greatest depth is just under 100 feet. The vaulted roof is so high that the cave was always light and airy and offered a perfect home site to the cliff dwellers who were seeking protection from the elements as well as from their enemies. Fortunately, the configuration of the cliffs above the ruin makes it possible to get a fine birdseye view from the rim of the mesa. Views obtained from the heads of the two trails are most striking and give an idea of the setting and size of the building before it is entered for closer inspection. The most spectacular view of Cliff Palace is from Sun Temple, across the canyon. This is the only spot from which the entire ruin may be seen. LIVING ROOMS Cliff Palace is the largest known cliff dwelling. Dr. Fewkes, who excavated the ruin in 1909, placed the number of living rooms at slightly more than 200. Very few of the walls reached the top of the cave because of its great height, but many of the structures were as high as two and three stories. Near the south end of the ruin is the tallest structure, a four-story tower that reaches the cave roof. Ground space appropriate for building purposes was at a premium in the cave. To provide for an increasing population, second, third, and even fourth-story rooms were superimposed on the original single-story structures which predominated in the initial cliff-dweller occupation of this site. When the cliff dwellers started building in the cave they were confronted with the problem of an uneven floor. The floor of the cave slanted from the back to the front and was covered with huge, angular boulders that had fallen from the cave roof. This problem the cliff dweller solved by erecting terraces and filling in the irregular places. The open spaces between the boulders were excellent for kivas, as there was not a great deal of excavation necessary. After the kiva walls were built the extra space was filled in with trash and dirt. When the flat kiva roof was added a level court resulted. Around this court the homes were constructed, often on the rough surfaces of the big boulders. Because of the uneven floor and the terracing that was necessary, six distinct terrace levels resulted. KIV AS Twenty-two kivas are located in the cave and another, lying about 50 feet from the western end, and thought to have been used by men living in the cave, brings the total to 23. Twenty of these conform to the plan of the typical Mesa Verde kiva, but three seem to be of a different type. These three, instead of being round, are square with rounded corners. The banquette is missing as well as the pilasters or roof supports. STORAGE ROOMS Because of the fact that the inhabitants of Cliff Palace were forced to store enough corn each fall to last until the next harvest a great many storage rooms were constructed. Any small nook or cranny that was too small for a home was utilized for that purpose. Far back in the cave a number were constructed of large, thin sandstone slabs. These slabs were placed on end to form small rectangular rooms, and when the door slabs were in place and all of the crevices were well chinked with mud the grain was safe from the rodents. High up under the roof of the cave, at the back, was a long narrow shelf that was also utilized for storage space. A wall was built along the front of the ledge, closing it up completely, and the space back of the wall was divided into 14 small storage rooms. A ladder on the roof of one of the houses below gave access to the ledge. PAINTINGS In the third floor room of the four-story tower is the finest painting yet found in the Mesa Verde. The entire inner surface of the four walls was covered with bright red designs on a white background. The designs are similar to those found on cliff-dweller pottery. The white color was obtained by mixing finely ground gypsum with water to form a smooth paste; the red was obtained by treating hematite, or red ochre, in the same manner. THE ROUND TOWER The outstanding structure in Cliff Palace is the two-story round tower that stands just south of the center of the cave. Every stone in this tower is rounded to conform to the curvature of the walls and the graceful taper toward the top makes it one of the finest examples of masonry work in the region. When the early explorers first entered this tower the only object found was the most beautiful stone ax they ever discovered. Whether this tower was a home or whether it was constructed for some special purpose can only be conjectured. POSSIBLE POPULATION Because of the fact that Cliff Palace is the largest of all cliff dwellings, its population is of special interest. A close inspection of the rooms in the ruin shows that they are smaller, on the average, than the rooms in any of the other large cliff dwellings. When judged from our modern standards, it is difficult to imagine more than a couple of people living in each one. Our modern ideas, however, will not help us in understanding the people who once lived in Cliff Palace. More than anything else the cliff dwellers desired security from their enemies. Their next desire was safety from the elements. When it is considered that these were the motivating influences, it can easily be understood that such minor matters as space and comfort would receive little consideration. Since the inhabitants were an easy-going, peace-loving group it can be imagined that crowded living conditions would not be objectionable. In addition it must be considered that the rooms were used principally as sleeping quarters. All activities were carried on in the open courts and on the terraced roof tops. Even the cooking was done over open fires outside the houses. An average of two to the room would give a population of 400; an average of three would place 600 in the cave. If every room were occupied at one time and if the average of two or three to the room is not too high, it would seem that a total population of 500 would not be too great for Cliff Palace. BALCONY HOUSE Balcony House lies in Soda Canyon about 2½ miles southeast of Spruce Tree Camp, and is reached by a continuation of the Cliff Palace Road. It is one of the most picturesque of the accessible ruins in the park and occupies a better position for defense than most of the other ruins on the mesa. A few defenders could have repelled a numerous attacking force. Additional precautions have been taken at the south end of the ruin for the strengthening of its defenses, where the only means of reaching it is through a very narrow cleft. The south part of the ledge was walled up to a height of about 15 feet, the lower part of the wall closing the cleft being pierced by a narrow tunnel. Through this tunnel a man may creep on hands and knees from the cliff dwelling to the south part of the ledge, which affords a footing, with a precipice to the left and the cliff to the right, for about 100 paces. The ledge here terminates in the perpendicular wall of the canyon. The ruined walls of a strong tower, built to cut off approach on this side, may still be traced. At the north end of the ruin the foundation gave the builders considerable trouble, but the difficulties were skillfully overcome. A supporting wall was erected on a lower ledge, to form a stable foundation for the outer wall of the upper rooms, where the higher ledge was too narrow or too rough for building purposes. South of the rooms fronted by this wall is a small open court, bounded at the back by a few very regular and well-preserved walls which rise to the roof of the cave. The poles supporting the floors of these upper-story rooms project about 2 feet to provide support for a balcony. Split poles, laid parallel with the front wall, were covered at right angles with rods of cedar bast and generously plastered with clay to form the floor of the balcony, which served as a means of outside communication between the rooms of the upper story. A low, thick parapet wall built on the edge of the precipice encloses the outer side of the northern court. The funds for the excavation and repair of Balcony House in 1911 were largely furnished by the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Society, an organization founded and directed by Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, of Colorado Springs, Colo., for the original purpose of stimulating interest in legislation for the preservation and protection of the prehistoric remains of the Mesa Verde, which led to the creation of this national park in 1906. SQUARE TOWER HOUSE Square Tower House is situated in an eastern spur of Navajo Canyon nearly opposite a great bluff called Echo Cliff. An ancient approach to the ruin was from the canyon rim. It was used by the natives, but is almost impassable for white visitors. Foot holes for ascent and descent had been cut by the Indians in the cliff at a point south of the ruin which enabled them to reach the level on which the ruin is situated. Along the top of the talus there runs to the ruins a pathway which splits into an upper and a lower branch. The former, hugging the cliff, passes through the “Eye of the Needle”; the latter is lower down on the cliff. The Square Tower House cave is shallow, its rear perpendicular, with roof slightly overhanging. At the extreme eastern end of the ruin the vertical face of the cliff suddenly turns at right angles, forming an angle in which, high above the main ruin, there still remain walls of rooms. To these rooms, which are tucked away just under the canyon rim, with only their front walls visible, the name “Crow’s Nest” is given. One end of a log, extending from a wall of one of these rooms, rests in a hole cut in the side of the cliff, a well-known method of cliff-house construction. Some rooms in Square Tower House were devoted to secular, others to ceremonial purposes. The former have angular corners; the latter are circular. The rectangular rooms were constructed above ground; the circular were subterranean. These rooms do not differ radically from those of Spruce Tree House and other cliff dwellings. They have similar windows, door openings, and supports of balconies. There is little difference in the size of the stones used in the masonry at different heights. The absence of a cave recess in the rear of the building is significant, as it allowed the cliff to be used as the back wall of the rooms. Square Tower House measures about 138 feet from its eastern to its western end. There are no streets or passageways as at Spruce Tree House and Cliff Palace, and no open spaces except on the kiva roofs. The rooms are continuous and compactly constructed. Excepting the spaces above the kivas, the walls are united from one end of the cave to the other. The foundations of the secular rooms are constructed on two levels, an upper and a lower. These rooms occupy the intervals between the kivas, never in front of them. THE TOWER The tower is, of course, the most conspicuous as well as the most interesting architectural feature of the ruin, being visible for a long distance as one approaches Square Tower House. Its foundation rests on a large boulder situated in the eastern section of the cave floor. This tower has three walls constructed of masonry, the fourth being the perpendicular rear wall of the cave. The masonry of the tower stands about 35 feet above the foundation, but the foundation boulder on which it stands increases its height over 5 feet. On a projecting rock on the west side above the tower is the wall of a small, inaccessible room which may have been used as a lookout or as an eagle house. The lowest story of the tower is entered from plaza B, and on the east side there are three openings, situated one over another, indicating the first, second, and third stories, but on the south side of the tower there are only two doorways. The roof of the lowest room is practically intact, showing good workmanship, but about half of its floor is destroyed. The upper walls of the second-story room have the original plaster, reddish dado below and white above. Although the third and fourth stories are destitute of floors, they are plastered. KIV AS Some of the best preserved circular ceremonial chambers (kivas) in the Southwest are to be seen in Square Tower House. The majority of the kivas belong to the pure type, distinguished by mural pilasters supporting a vaulted roof. Kiva A is particularly instructive on account of the good preservation of its roof. Its greatest diameter is 13 feet 6 inches; or, measuring inside the banquettes, 11 feet 1 inch. The interior is well plastered with many layers of brown plaster. The pilasters are six in number, one of which is double. Two depressions are visible in the smooth floor, in addition to a fireplace and a sipapû. These suggest ends of a ladder, but no remains of a ladder were found in the room. Kiva B is the largest ceremonial chamber in Square Tower House, measuring 16 feet 9 inches in diameter over all. This kiva is not only one of the best preserved, but also one of the most instructive in Square Tower House, since half of the roof, with the original cribbing, is still in place, extending completely around the periphery. It has six pilasters and as many banquettes. Where the plaster had not fallen, it was found to have several layers. Sun Temple, a mysterious form of ruin. PETROGLYPHS AND PICTOGRAPHS The perpendicular cliff back of Square Tower House has several different forms of incised petroglyphs. From the fact that these usually occur on the cliff above the kiva roofs, they may be regarded as connected in some way with a religious symbolism. A few pictographs are also found on stones set in the walls of the rooms. OAK TREE HOUSE